; }
```
```shell-session
$ echo "{ a.b.c = 1; }" > file.nix
$ nix-instantiate --eval --strict file.nix
{ a = { b = { c = 1; }; }; }
```
:::
[nix-instantiate]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/command-ref/nix-instantiate.html
## Reading the Nix language without fear
You may quickly encounter Nix language expressions that look very complicated.
As with any programming language, the required amount of Nix language code closely matches the complexity of the problem it is supposed to solve, and reflects how well the problem – and its solution – is understood.
Building software is a complex undertaking, and Nix both *exposes* and *allows managing* this complexity with the Nix language.
The purpose of the Nix language is to create *build tasks*: precise descriptions of how contents of existing files are used to derive new files.
:::{important}
A build task in Nix is called a *derivation*.
:::
The Nix language has only few basic constructs which can be combined arbitrarily:
- Primitive data types
such as integers or character strings
- Compound data types
that is, lists and attribute sets
- Functions and operators
to produce and transform data
- Name assignment
to manipulate data as units
The language is *pure*, that is, its evaluation does not observe or interact with the outside world – with one notable exception:
reading files, to capture what build tasks will operate on.
There is nothing else to it.
What may look complicated comes not from the language, but from how it is used.
### Notes on whitespace
White space is used to delimit [lexical tokens], where required.
It is otherwise insignificant.
[lexical tokens]: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexical_analysis#Token
Line breaks, indentation, and additional spaces are for readers' convenience.
The following are equivalent:
```nix
let
x = 1;
y = 2;
in x + y
```
3
```nix
let x=1;y=2;in x+y
```
3
(names-values)=
## Names and values
Values in the Nix language can be primitive data types, lists, attribute sets, and functions.
We show primitive data types and lists as examples in the context of [attribute sets](attrset).
Later in this section we cover special features of character strings: [antiquotation](antiquotation), [file system paths](file-system-paths), and [indented strings](indented-strings).
We deal with [functions](functions) separately.
There are two ways to assign names to values in Nix: [attribute sets](attrset) and [`let` expressions](let).
Assignments are denoted by a single equal sign (`=`).
Whenever you see an equal sign (`=`) in Nix language code:
- On its left is the assigned name.
- On its right is the value, delimited by a semicolon (`;`).
(attrset)=
### Attribute set `{ ... }`
An attribute set is a collection of name-value-pairs, where names must be unique.
The following example shows all primitive data types, lists, and attribute sets.
:::{note}
If you are familiar with JSON, imagine the Nix language as *JSON with functions*.
Nix language data types *without functions* work just like their counterparts in JSON and look very similar.
:::
Nix language
JSON
```nix
{
string = "hello";
integer = 1;
float = 3.141;
bool = true;
null = null;
list = [ 1 "two" false ];
attribute-set = {
a = "hello";
b = 2;
c = 2.718;
d = false;
}; # comments are supported
}
```
```json
{
"string": "hello",
"integer": 1,
"float": 3.141,
"bool": true,
"null": null,
"list": [1, "two", false],
"object": {
"a": "hello",
"b": 1,
"c": 2.718,
"d": false
}
}
```
:::{note}
- Attribute names usually do not need quotes.[^attrnames]
- List elements are separated by white space.[^list-whitespace]
:::
[^attrnames]: Any name that starts with a letter and contains letters (`a`-`z`, `A`-`Z`), numbers (`0`-`9`), dashes (`-`), underscores (`_`), or apostrophes (`'`) can be used without quotes.
[^list-whitespace]: Details: [Nix manual - lists][manual-lists]
[manual-lists]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/values.html#list
(rec-attrset)=
#### Recursive attribute set `rec { ... }`
You will sometimes see attribute sets declared with `rec` prepended.
This allows access to attributes from within the set.
Example:
```nix
rec {
one = 1;
two = one + 1;
three = two + 1;
}
```
{ one = 1; three = 3; two = 2; }
:::{note}
Elements in an attribute set can be declared in any order, and are ordered on evaluation.
:::
Counter-example:
```nix
{
one = 1;
two = one + 1;
three = two + 1;
}
```
error: undefined variable 'one'
at «string»:3:9:
2| one = 1;
3| two = one + 1;
| ^
4| three = two + 1;
(let)=
### `let ... in ...`
Also known as “`let` expression” or “`let` binding”
`let` expressions allow assigning names to values for repeated use.
Example:
```nix
let
a = 1;
in
a + a
```
2
Detailed explanation
Assignments are placed between the keywords `let` and `in`.
In this example we assign `a = 1`.
After `in` comes the expression in which the assignments are valid, i.e., where assigned names can be used.
In this example the expression is `a + a`, where `a` refers to `a = 1`.
By replacing the names with their assigned values, `a + a` evaluates to `2`.
Names can be assigned in any order, and expressions on the right of the assignment (`=`) can refer to other assigned names.
Example:
```nix
let
b = a + 1;
a = 1;
in
a + b
```
3
Detailed explanation
Assignments are placed between the keywords `let` and `in`.
In this example we assign `a = 1` and `b = a + 1`.
The order of assignments does not matter.
Therefore the following example, where the assignments are in reverse order, is equivalent:
```nix
let
a = 1;
b = a + 1;
in
a + b
```
3
Note that the `a` in `b = a + 1` refers to `a = 1`.
After `in` comes the expression in which the assignments are valid.
In this example the expression is `a + b`, where `a` refers to `a = 1`, and `b` refers to `b = a + 1`.
By replacing the names with their assigned values, `a + b` evaluates to `3`.
This is similar to [recursive attribute sets](rec-attrset):
in both, the order of assignments does not matter, and names on the left can be used in expressions on the right of the assignment (`=`).
Example:
`let ... in ...`
`rec { ... }`
```nix
let
b = a + 1;
c = a + b;
a = 1;
in { c = c; a = a; b = b; }
```
{ a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; }
```nix
rec {
b = a + 1;
c = a + b;
a = 1;
}
```
{ a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; }
The difference is that while a recursive attribute set evaluates to an [attribute set](attrset), any expression can follow after the `in` keyword.
In the following example we use the `let` expression to form a list:
```nix
let
b = a + 1;
c = a + b;
a = 1;
in [ a b c ]
```
[ 1 2 3 ]
Only expressions within the `let` expression itself can access the newly declared names.
We say: the bindings have local scope.
Counter-example:
```nix
{
a = let x = 1; in x;
b = x;
}
```
error: undefined variable 'x'
at «string»:3:7:
2| a = let x = 1; in x;
3| b = x;
| ^
4| }
### Attribute access
Attributes in a set are accessed with a dot (`.`) and the attribute name.
Example:
```nix
let
attrset = { x = 1; };
in
attrset.x
```
1
Accessing nested attributes works the same way.
Example:
```nix
let
attrset = { a = { b = { c = 1; }; }; };
in
attrset.a.b.c
```
1
The dot (`.`) notation can also be used for assigning attributes.
Example:
```nix
{ a.b.c = 1; }
```
{ a = { b = { c = 1; }; }; }
(with)=
### `with ...; ...`
The `with` expression allows access to attributes without repeatedly referencing their attribute set.
Example:
```nix
let
a = {
x = 1;
y = 2;
z = 3;
};
in
with a; [ x y z ]
```
[ 1 2 3 ]
The expression
with a; [ x y z ]
is equivalent to
[ a.x a.y a.z ]
Attributes made available through `with` are only in scope of the expression following the semicolon (`;`).
Counter-example:
```nix
let
a = {
x = 1;
y = 2;
z = 3;
};
in
{
b = with a; [ x y z ];
c = x;
}
```
error: undefined variable 'x'
at «string»:10:7:
9| b = with a; [ x y z ];
10| c = x;
| ^
11| }
(inherit)=
### `inherit ...`
`inherit` is shorthand for assigning the value of a name from an existing scope to the same name in a nested scope.
It is for convenience to avoid repeating the same name multiple times.
Example:
```
let
x = 1;
y = 2;
in
{
inherit x y;
}
```
{ x = 1; y = 2; }
The fragment
inherit x y;
is equivalent to
x = x; y = y;
It is also possible to `inherit` names from a specific attribute set with parentheses (`inherit (...) ...`).
Example:
```nix
let
a = { x = 1; y = 2; };
in
{
inherit (a) x y;
}
```
{ x = 1; y = 2; }
The fragment
inherit (a) x y;
is equivalent to
x = a.x; y = a.y;
`inherit` also works inside `let` expressions.
Example:
```nix
let
inherit ({ x = 1; y = 2; }) x y;
in [ x y ]
```
[ 1 2 ]
Detailed explanation
While this example is contrived, in more complex code you will regularly see nested `let` expressions that re-use names from their outer scope.
Here we use the attribute set `{ x = 1; y = 2; }` to have something non-trivial to inherit from.
The `let` expression inherits `x` and `y` from that attribute set using `( )`, which is equivalent to writing:
```
let
x = { x = 1; y = 2; }.x;
y = { x = 1; y = 2; }.y;
in
```
The new inner scope now contains `x` and `y`, which are used in the list `[ x y ]`.
(antiquotation)=
### Antiquotation `${ ... }`
Also known as “string interpolation”.
The value of a Nix expression can be inserted into a character string with the dollar-sign and braces (`${ }`).
Example:
```nix
let
name = "Nix";
in
"hello ${name}"
```
"hello Nix"
Only character strings or values that can be represented as a character string are allowed.
Counter-example:
```nix
let
x = 1;
in
"${x} + ${x} = ${x + x}"
```
error: cannot coerce an integer to a string
at «string»:4:2:
3| in
4| "${x} + ${x} = ${x + x}"
| ^
5|
Antiquotation can be arbitrarily nested.
(This can become hard to read, and we recommend to avoid it in practice.)
Example:
```nix
let
a = "no";
in
"${a + "${a + " ${a}"}"}"
```
"no no no"
:::{warning}
You may encounter strings that use the dollar sign (`$`) before an assigned name, but no braces (`{ }`):
These are *not* antiquotations, but usually denote variables in a shell script.
In such cases, the use of names from the surrounding Nix expression is a coincidence.
Example:
```nix
let
out = "Nix";
in
"echo ${out} > $out"
```
"echo Nix > $out"
:::
(file-system-paths)=
### File system paths
The Nix language offers convenience syntax for file system paths.
Absolute paths always start with a slash (`/`).
Example:
```nix
/absolute/path
```
/absolute/path
Paths are relative when they contain at least one slash (`/`) but do not start with one.
They evaluate to the path relative to the file containing the expression.
The following examples assume the containing Nix file is in `/current/directory` (or `nix repl` is run in `/current/directory`).
Example:
```nix
./relative
```
/current/directory/relative
Example:
```nix
relative/path
```
/current/directory/relative/path
One dot (`.`) denotes the current directory within the given path.
You will often see the following expression, which specifies a Nix file's directory.
Example:
```nix
./.
```
/current/directory
Detailed explanation
Since relative paths must contain a slash (`/`) but must not start with one, and the dot (`.`) denotes no change of directory, the combination `./.` specifies the current directory as a relative path.
Two dots (`..`) denote the parent directory.
Example:
```nix
../.
```
/current
:::{note}
Paths can be used in antiquotation – an [impure operation](impurities) we will cover in detail in a [later section](path-impurities).
:::
#### Search path
Also known as “angle bracket syntax”.
Example:
```nix
```
/nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root/channels/nixpkgs
The value of a named path is a file system path that depends on the contents of the [`$NIX_PATH`][NIX_PATH] environment variable.
In practice, `` points to the file system path of some revision of [`nixpkgs`][nixpkgs], the source repository of Nixpkgs.
For example, `` points to the subdirectory `lib` of that file system path:
```nix
```
/nix/var/nix/profiles/per-user/root/channels/nixpkgs/lib
While you will see many such examples, we recommend to [avoid search paths](search-path) in practice, as they are [impurities](impurities) which are not reproducible.
[NIX_PATH]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/unstable/command-ref/env-common.html?highlight=nix_path#env-NIX_PATH
[nixpkgs]: https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs
[manual-primitives]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/values.html#primitives
(indented-strings)=
### Indented strings
Also known as “multi-line strings”.
The Nix language offers convenience syntax for character strings which span multiple lines that have common indentation.
Indented strings are denoted by *double single quotes* (`'' ''`).
Example:
```nix
''
multi
line
string
''
```
"multi\nline\nstring"
Equal amounts of prepended white space are trimmed from the result.
Example:
```nix
''
one
two
three
''
```
"one\n two\n three\n"
(functions)=
## Functions
Functions are everywhere in the Nix language and deserve particular attention.
A function always takes exactly one argument.
Argument and function body are separated by a colon (`:`).
Wherever you see a colon (`:`) in Nix language code:
- On its left is the function argument
- On its right is the function body.
Function declarations in the Nix language can appear in different forms.
Each of them is explained in the following, and here is an overview:
- Single argument
```nix
x: x + 1
```
- Multiple arguments via nesting
```nix
x: y: x + y
```
- Attribute set argument
```nix
{ a, b }: a + b
```
- With default attributes
```nix
{ a, b ? 0 }: a + b
```
- With additional attributes allowed
```nix
{ a, b, ...}: a + b
```
- Named attribute set argument
```nix
args@{ a, b, ... }: a + b + args.c
```
or
```nix
{ a, b, ... }@args: a + b + args.c
```
Functions have no names.
We say they are anonymous, and call such a function a *lambda*.
Example:
```nix
x: x + 1
```
The `` indicates the resulting value is an anonymous function.
As with any other value, functions can be assigned to a name.
Example:
```nix
let
f = x: x + 1;
in f
```
### Calling functions
Also known as "function application".
Calling a function with an argument means writing the argument after the function.
Example:
```nix
let
f = x: x + 1;
in f 1
```
2
Example:
```nix
let
f = x: x.a;
in
f { a = 1; }
```
1
The above example calls `f` on a literal attribute set.
One can also pass arguments by name.
Example:
```nix
let
f = x: x.a;
v = { a = 1; };
in
f v
```
1
Since function and argument are separated by white space, sometimes parentheses (`( )`) are required to achieve the desired result.
Example:
```nix
(x: x + 1) 1
```
2
Detailed explanation
This expression applies an anonymous function `x: x + 1` to the argument `1`.
The function has to be written in parentheses to distinguish it from the argument.
Example:
List elements are also separated by white space, therefore the following are different:
```nix
let
f = x: x + 1;
a = 1;
in [ (f a) ]
```
[ 2 ]
```nix
let
f = x: x + 1;
a = 1;
in [ f a ]
```
[ 1 ]
The first example reads: apply `f` to `a`, and put the result in a list.
The resulting list has one element.
The second example reads: put `f` and `a` in a list.
The resulting list has two elements.
#### Multiple arguments
Also known as “[curried] functions”.
Nix functions take exactly one argument.
Multiple arguments can be handled by nesting functions.
Such a nested function can be used like a function that takes multiple arguments, but offers additional flexibility.
[curried]: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Currying
Example:
```nix
x: y: x + y
```
The above function is equivalent to
```nix
x: (y: x + y)
```
This function takes one argument and returns another function `y: x + y` with `x` set to the value of that argument.
Example:
```nix
let
f = x: y: x + y;
in
f 1
```
Applying the function which results from `f 1` to another argument yields the inner body `x + y` (with `x` set to `1` and `y` set to the other argument), which can now be fully evaluated.
```nix
let
f = x: y: x + y;
in
f 1 2
```
3
### Attribute set argument
Also known as “keyword arguments” or “destructuring” .
Nix functions can be declared to require an attribute set with specific structure as argument.
This is denoted by listing the expected attribute names separated by commas (`,`) and enclosed in braces (`{ }`).
Example:
```nix
{a, b}: a + b
```
The argument defines the exact attributes that have to be in that set.
Leaving out or passing additional attributes is an error.
Example:
```nix
let
f = {a, b}: a + b;
in
f { a = 1; b = 2; }
```
3
Counter-example:
```nix
let
f = {a, b}: a + b;
in
f { a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; }
```
error: 'f' at (string):2:7 called with unexpected argument 'c'
at «string»:4:1:
3| in
4| f { a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; }
| ^
5|
#### Default values
Also known as “default arguments”.
Destructured arguments can have default values for attributes.
This is denoted by separating the attribute name and its default value with a question mark (`?`).
Attributes in the argument are not required if they have a default value.
Example:
```nix
let
f = {a, b ? 0}: a + b;
in
f { a = 1; }
```
1
Example:
```nix
let
f = {a ? 0, b ? 0}: a + b;
in
f { } # empty attribute set
```
0
#### Additional attributes
Additional attributes are allowed with an ellipsis (`...`):
{a, b, ...}: a + b
Unlike in the previous counter-example, passing an argument that contains additional attributes is not an error.
Example:
```nix
let
f = {a, b, ...}: a + b;
in
f { a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; }
```
3
### Named attribute set argument
Also known as “@ pattern”, “@ syntax”, or “‘at’ syntax”.
An attribute set argument can be given a name to be accessible as a whole.
This is denoted by prepending or appending the name to the attribute set argument, separated by the at sign (`@`).
Example:
```nix
{a, b, ...}@args: a + b + args.c
```
or
```nix
args@{a, b, ...}: a + b + args.c
```
Example:
```nix
let
f = {a, b, ...}@args: a + b + args.c;
in
f { a = 1; b = 2; c = 3; }
```
6
(libraries)=
## Function libraries
In addition to the [built-in operators][operators] (`+`, `==`, `&&`, etc.), there are two widely used libraries that *together* can be considered standard for the Nix language.
You need to know about both to understand and navigate Nix language code.
We recommend to at least skim them to familiarise yourself with what is available.
[operators]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/operators.html
(builtins)=
### `builtins`
Also known as “primitive operations” or “primops”.
Nix comes with many functions that are built into the language.
They are implemented in C++ as part of the Nix language interpreter.
:::{note}
The Nix manual lists all [Built-in Functions][nix-builtins], and shows how to use them.
:::
These functions are available under the `builtins` constant.
Example:
```nix
builtins.toString
```
[nix-operators]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/unstable/language/operators.html
[nix-builtins]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/builtins.html
#### `import`
Most built-in functions are only accessible through `builtins`.
A notable exception is `import`, which is also available at the top level.
`import` takes a path to a Nix file, reads it to evaluate the contained Nix expression, and returns the resulting value.
Example:
```console
echo 1 + 2 > file.nix
```
```nix
import ./file.nix
```
3
Detailed explanation
The preceding shell command writes the contents `1 + 2` to the file `file.nix` in the current directory.
The above Nix expression refers to this file as `./file.nix`.
`import` reads the file and evaluates to the contained Nix expression.
It is an error if the file system path does not exist.
After reading `file.nix` the Nix expression is equivalent to the file contents:
```nix
1 + 2
```
3
Since a Nix file can contain any Nix expression, `import`ed functions can be applied to arguments immediately.
That is, whenever you see additional tokens after a call to `import`, the value it returns should be a function, and anything that follows are arguments to that function.
Example:
```console
echo "x: x + 1" > file.nix
```
```nix
import ./file.nix 1
```
2
Detailed explanation
The preceding shell command writes the contents `x: x + 1` to the file `file.nix` in the current directory.
The above Nix expression refers to this file as `./file.nix`.
`import ./file.nix` reads the file and evaluates to the contained Nix expression.
It is an error if the file system path does not exist.
After reading the file, the Nix expression `import ./file.nix` is equivalent to the file contents:
```nix
(x: x + 1) 1
```
2
This applies the function `x: x + 1` to the argument `1`, and therefore evaluates to `2`.
:::{note}
Parentheses are required to separate function declaration from function application.
:::
(pkgs-lib)=
### `pkgs.lib`
The [`nixpkgs`][nixpkgs] repository contains an attribute set called [`lib`][nixpkgs-lib], which provides a large number of useful functions.
They are implemented in the Nix language, as opposed to [`builtins`](builtins), which are part of the language itself.
:::{note}
The Nixpkgs manual lists all [Nixpkgs library functions][nixpkgs-functions].
:::
[nixpkgs-functions]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#sec-functions-library
[nixpkgs-lib]: https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/blob/master/lib/default.nix
These functions are usually accessed through `pkgs.lib`, as the Nixpkgs attribute set is given the name `pkgs` by convention.
Example:
```nix
let
pkgs = import {};
in
pkgs.lib.strings.toUpper "search paths considered harmful"
```
SEARCH PATHS CONSIDERED HARMFUL
Detailed explanation
This is a more complex example, but by now you should be familiar with all its components.
The name `pkgs` is declared to be the expression `import`ed from some file.
That file's path is determined by the value of the search path ``, which in turn is determined by the `$NIX_PATH` environment variable at the time this expression is evaluated.
As this expression happens to be a function, it requires an argument to evaluate, and in this case passing an empty attribute set `{}` is sufficient.
Now that `pkgs` is in scope of `let ... in ...`, its attributes can be accessed.
From the Nixpkgs manual one can determine that there exists a function under [`lib.strings.toUpper`].
[`lib.strings.toUpper`]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#function-library-lib.strings.toUpper
For brevity, this example uses a search path to obtain *some version* of Nixpkgs.
The function `toUpper` is trivial enough that we can expect it not to produce different results for different versions of Nixpkgs.
Yet, more sophisticated software is likely to suffer from such problems.
A fully reproducible example would therefore look like this:
```nix
let
nixpkgs = fetchTarball https://github.com/NixOS/nixpkgs/archive/3590f02e7d5760e52072c1a729ee2250b5560746.tar.gz;
pkgs = import nixpkgs {};
in
pkgs.lib.strings.toUpper "always pin your sources"
```
ALWAYS PIN YOUR SOURCES
See [](pinning-nixpkgs) for details.
What you will also often see is that `pkgs` is passed as an argument to a function.
By convention one can assume that it refers to the Nixpkgs attribute set, which has a `lib` attribute:
```nix
{ pkgs, ... }:
pkgs.lib.strings.removePrefix "no " "no true scotsman"
```
To make this function produce a result, you can write it to a file (e.g. `file.nix`) and pass it an argument through `nix-instantiate`:
```console
nix-instantiate --eval test.nix --arg pkgs 'import {}'
```
"true scotsman"
Oftentimes you will see in NixOS configurations, and also within Nixpkgs, that `lib` is passed directly.
In that case one can assume that this `lib` is equivalent to `pkgs.lib` where only `pkgs` is available.
Example:
```nix
{ lib, ... }:
let
to-be = true;
in
lib.trivial.or to-be (! to-be)
```
To make this function produce a result, you can write it to a file (e.g. `file.nix`) and pass it an argument through `nix-instantiate`:
```console
nix-instantiate --eval file.nix --arg lib '(import {}).lib'
```
true
Sometimes both `pkgs` and `lib` are passed as arguments.
In that case, one can assume `pkgs.lib` and `lib` to be equivalent.
This is done to improve readability by avoiding repeated use of `pkgs.lib`.
Example:
```nix
{ pkgs, lib, ... }:
# ... multiple uses of `pkgs`
# ... multiple uses of `lib`
```
For historical reasons, some of the functions in `pkgs.lib` are equivalent to [`builtins`](builtins) of the same name.
(impurities)=
## Impurities
So far we have only covered what we call *pure expressions*:
declaring data and transforming it with functions.
In practice, describing build tasks requires observing the outside world.
There is only one impurity in the Nix language that is relevant here:
reading files from the file system as *build inputs*
Build inputs are files that build tasks refer to in order to describe how to derive new files.
When run, a build task will only have access to explicitly declared build inputs.
The only way to specify build inputs in the Nix language is explicitly with:
- File system paths
- Dedicated functions.
Nix and the Nix language refer to files by their content hash. If file contents are not known in advance, it's unavoidable to read files during expression evaluation.
:::{note}
Nix supports other types of impure expressions, such as [search paths](search-path) or the constant [`builtins.currentSystem`](https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/builtin-constants.html#builtins-currentSystem).
We do not cover those here in more detail, as they do not matter for how the Nix language works in principle, and because they are discouraged for the very reason of breaking reproducibility.
:::
(path-impurities)=
### Paths
Whenever a file system path is rendered to a character string with [antiquotation](antiquotation), the contents of that file are copied to a special location in the file system, the *Nix store*, as a side effect.
The evaluated string then contains the Nix store path assigned to that file.
Example:
```console
echo 123 > data
```
```nix
"${./data}"
```
"/nix/store/h1qj5h5n05b5dl5q4nldrqq8mdg7dhqk-data"
Detailed explanation
The preceding shell command writes the characters `123` to the file `data` in the current directory.
The above Nix expression refers to this file as `./data` and converts the file system path to a string with [antiquotation](antiquotation) `${ ... }`.
Only values that can be represented as a character string are allowed for antiquotation.
A file system path is such a value, and its character string representation is the corresponding Nix store path.
The Nix store path is obtained by taking the hash of the file's contents (``) and combining it with the file name (``).
The file is copied into the Nix store directory `/nix/store` as a side effect of evaluation:
/nix/store/-
It is an error if the file system path does not exist.
For directories the same thing happens: The entire directory (including nested files and directories) is copied to the Nix store, and the evaluated string becomes the Nix store path of the directory.
### Fetchers
Files to be used as build inputs do not have to come from the file system.
The Nix language provides built-in impure functions to fetch files over the network during evaluation:
- [builtins.fetchurl][fetchurl]
- [builtins.fetchTarball][fetchTarball]
- [builtins.fetchGit][fetchGit]
- [builtins.fetchClosure][fetchClosure]
These functions evaluate to a file system path in the Nix store.
Example:
```nix
builtins.fetchurl https://github.com/NixOS/nix/archive/7c3ab5751568a0bc63430b33a5169c5e4784a0ff.tar.gz
```
"/nix/store/7dhgs330clj36384akg86140fqkgh8zf-7c3ab5751568a0bc63430b33a5169c5e4784a0ff.tar.gz"
Some of them add extra convenience, such as automatically unpacking archives.
Example:
```nix
builtins.fetchTarball https://github.com/NixOS/nix/archive/7c3ab5751568a0bc63430b33a5169c5e4784a0ff.tar.gz
```
"/nix/store/d59llm96vgis5fy231x6m7nrijs0ww36-source"
:::{note}
The Nixpkgs manual on [Fetchers][nixpkgs-fetchers] lists numerous additional library functions to fetch files over the network.
:::
It is an error if the network request fails.
[fetchurl]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/builtins.html#builtins-fetchurl
[fetchTarball]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/builtins.html#builtins-fetchTarball
[fetchGit]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/builtins.html#builtins-fetchGit
[fetchClosure]: https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/language/builtins.html#builtins-fetchClosure
[nixpkgs-fetchers]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-pkgs-fetchers
(derivations)=
## Derivations
A build task in Nix is called a *derivation*.
Build tasks are at the core of both Nix and the Nix language:
- The Nix language is used to describe build tasks.
- Nix runs build tasks to produce *build results*.
- Build results can in turn be used as inputs for other build tasks.
The Nix language primitive to declare a build task is the built-in impure function `derivation`.
It is usually wrapped by the Nixpkgs build mechanism `stdenv.mkDerivation`, which hides much of the complexity involved in non-trivial build procedures.
:::{note}
You will probably never encounter `derivation` in practice.
:::
Whenever you see `mkDerivation`, it denotes something that Nix will eventually *build*.
Example: [a package using `mkDerivation`](mkDerivation-example)
The evaluation result of `derivation` (and `mkDerivation`) is an [attribute set](attrset) with a certain structure and a special property:
It can be used in [antiquotation](antiquotation), and in that case evaluates to the Nix store path of its build result.
Example:
```nix
let
pkgs = import {};
in "${pkgs.nix}"
```
"/nix/store/sv2srrjddrp2isghmrla8s6lazbzmikd-nix-2.11.0"
:::{note}
Your output may differ.
It may produce a different hash or even a different package version.
A derivation's output path is fully determined by its inputs, which in this case come from *some* version of Nixpkgs.
This is why we recommend to [avoid search paths](search-path) to ensure predictable outcomes, except in examples intended for illustration only.
:::
Detailed explanation
The example imports the Nix expression from the search path ``, and applies the resulting function to an empty attribute set `{}`.
Its output is assigned the name `pkgs`.
Converting the attribute `pkgs.nix` to a string with [antiquotation](antiquotation) is allowed, as `pkgs.nix` is a derivation.
That is, ultimately `pkgs.nix` boils down to a call to `derivation`.
The resulting string is the file system path where the build result of that derivation will end up.
There is more depth to the inner workings of derivations, but at this point it should be enough to know that such expressions evaluate to Nix store paths.
Antiquotation on derivations is used to refer to other build results as file system paths when declaring new build tasks.
This allows constructing arbitrarily complex compositions of derivations with the Nix language.
## Worked examples
So far we have seen artifical examples illustrating the various constructs in the Nix language.
You should now be able to read Nix language code for simple packages and configurations, and come up with similiar explanations of the following practical examples.
Note that the goal of the following exercises is not to understand what the code means or how it works, but how it is structured in terms of functions, attribute sets, and other Nix language data types.
### Shell environment
```nix
{ pkgs ? import {} }:
let
message = "hello world";
in
pkgs.mkShell {
buildInputs = with pkgs; [ cowsay ];
shellHook = ''
cowsay ${message}
'';
}
```
This example declares a shell environment (which runs the `shellHook` on initialization).
Explanation:
- This expression is a function that takes an attribute set as an argument.
- If the argument has the attribute `pkgs`, it will be used in the function body.
Otherwise, by default, import the Nix expression in the file found on the search path `` (which is a function in this case), call the function with an empty attribute set, and use the resulting value.
- The name `message` is bound to the string value `"hello world"`.
- The attribute `mkShell` of the `pkgs` set is a function that is passed an attribute set as argument.
Its return value is also the result of the outer function.
- The attribute set passed to `mkShell` has the attributes `buildInputs` (set to a list with one element: the `cowsay` attribute from `pkgs`) and `shellHook` (set to an indented string).
- The indented string contains an antiquotation, which will expand the value of `message` to yield `"hello world"`.
### NixOS configuration
```nix
{ config, pkgs, ... }: {
imports = [ ./hardware-configuration.nix ];
environment.systemPackages = with pkgs; [ git ];
# ...
}
```
This example is (part of) a NixOS configuration.
Explanation:
- This expression is a function that takes an attribute set as an argument.
It returns an attribute set.
- The argument must at least have the attributes `config` and `pkgs`, and may have more attributes.
- The returned attribute set contains the attributes `imports` and `environment`.
- `imports` is a list with one element: a path to a file next to this Nix file, called `hardware-configuration.nix`.
:::{note}
`imports` is not the impure built-in `import`, but a regular attribute name!
:::
- `environment` is itself an attribute set with one attribute `systemPackages`, which will evaluate to a list with one element: the `git` attribute from the `pkgs` set.
- The `config` argument is not (shown to be) used.
(mkDerivation-example)=
### Package
```nix
{ lib, stdenv }:
stdenv.mkDerivation rec {
pname = "hello";
version = "2.12";
src = builtins.fetchTarball {
url = "mirror://gnu/${pname}/${pname}-${version}.tar.gz";
sha256 = "1ayhp9v4m4rdhjmnl2bq3cibrbqqkgjbl3s7yk2nhlh8vj3ay16g";
};
meta = with lib; {
license = licenses.gpl3Plus;
};
}
```
This example is a (simplified) package declaration from Nixpkgs.
Explanation:
- This expression is a function that takes an attribute set which must have exactly the attributes `lib` and `stdenv`.
- It returns the result of evaluating the function `mkDerivaion`, which is an attribute of `stdenv`, applied to a recursive set.
- The recursive set passed to `mkDerivation` uses its own `pname` and `version` attributes in the argument to the built-in function `fetchTarball`.
- The `meta` attribute is itself an attribute set, where the `license` attribute has the value that was assigned to the nested attribute `lib.licenses.gpl3Plus`.
## References
- [Nix manual: Nix language][manual-language] - Nix language reference
- [Nix manual: Built-in Functions][nix-builtins] - Nix language built-in functions
- [Nixpkgs manual: Functions reference][nixpkgs-functions] - Nixpkgs function library
- [Nixpkgs manual: Fetchers][nixpkgs-fetchers] - Nixpkgs fetcher library
## Next steps
### Get things done
- [](declarative-reproducible-envs) – create reproducible shell environments from a Nix file
- [Garbage Collection](https://nixos.org/manual/nix/stable/package-management/garbage-collection.html) – remove unused build results from the Nix store
### Learn more
If you worked through the examples, you will have noticed that reading the Nix language reveals the structure of the code, but does not necessarily tell what the code actually means.
Often it is not possible to determine from the code at hand
- the data type of a named value or function argument.
- the data type a called function accepts for its argument.
- which attributes are present in a given attribute set.
Example:
```nix
{ x, y, z }: (x y) z.a
```
How do we know...
- that `x` will be a function that, given an argument, returns a function?
- that, given `x` is a function, `y` will be an appropriate argument to `x`?
- that, given `(x y)` is a function, `z.a` will be an appropriate argument to `(x y)`?
- that `z` will be an attribute set at all?
- that, given `z` is an attribute set, it will have an attribute `a`?
- which data type `y` and `z.a` will be?
- the data type of the end result?
And how does the caller of this function know that it requires an attribute set with attributes `x`, `y`, `z`?
Answering such questions requires knowing the context in which a given expression is supposed to be used.
The Nix ecosystem and code style is driven by conventions.
Most names you will encounter in Nix language code come from Nixpkgs:
- [Nix Pills][nix-pills] - a detailed explanation of derivations and how Nixpkgs is constructed from first principles
Nixpkgs provides generic build mechanisms that are widely used:
- [`stdenv`][stdenv] - most importantly `mkDerivation`
- [Trivial Builders][trivial-builders] - to create files and shell scripts
Packages from Nixpkgs can be modified through multiple mechanisms:
- [overrides] – specifically `override` and `overrideAttrs` to modify single packages
- [overlays] – to produce a custom variant of Nixpkgs with individually modified packages
Different language ecosystems and frameworks have different requirements to accommodating them into Nixpkgs:
- [Languages and frameworks][language-support] lists tools provided by Nixpkgs to build language- or framework-specific packages with Nix.
The NixOS Linux distribution has a modular configuration system that imposes its own conventions:
- [NixOS modules][nixos-modules] shows how NixOS configurations are organized.
[nix-pills]: https://nixos.org/guides/nix-pills/
[stdenv]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-stdenv
[trivial-builders]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-trivial-builders
[overlays]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-overlays
[overrides]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-overrides
[language-support]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixpkgs/stable/#chap-language-support
[nixos-modules]: https://nixos.org/manual/nixos/stable/index.html#sec-writing-modules